Since it was set up in 1995, with the aim of eventually eliminating the four eye diseases, the IEF has saved the sight of over 14,000 children in 13 countries on five continents exceeding the organization's expectations. In addition, over 200,000 children have benefited from eye examinations and treatment. Funded by the US Agency for International Development (USAID), the IEF's "Seeing 2000" project aims to increase and improve ocular surgery for children by offering small grants to indigenous charity hospitals and eye care organizations. An underlying strength built into the program is its flexibility—locally determined needs are met with locally designed strategies. Moreover by using volunteers, both local and international, the expense of providing eye care can be kept to the minimum.
Meanwhile, the IEF has launched a program called Sightreach Prevention in Africa, Latin America and Eastern Europe. This program is divided into Sightreach Surgical, which provides affordable ophthalmic medical and surgical equipment and supplies to local doctors and hospitals to help lower surgical costs, and Sightreach Management, which strengthens the capacity for financial self-sufficiency of eye care providers through improved management practices and services. The IEF works closely with ministries of health and indigenous NGOs.
One of the key parts of the work is the provision of Vitamin A. This vitamin is essential for healthy eyesight and general eye health. Xerophthalmia, a blinding eye condition caused by Vitamin A deficiency, is the leading cause of blindness in children in the developing world. It causes severe dryness of the eye, resulting in the cornea at the front of the eye becoming ulcerated and scarred. Blindness follows. Moreover, more than half the children under age five who go blind from xerophthalmia die within a year—not from xerophthalmia, but from complications associated with Vitamin A deficiency. These include measles, acute respiratory diseases and diarrheal diseases. The IEF's Child Survival and Vitamin A Deficiency Control programs have distributed Vitamin A capsules to tens of thousands of children in Eritrea, Ethiopia, Malawi, Guatemala and Honduras. It intends to supply vitamin A capsules to some 51,000 children in Bolivia soon.
According to the World Health Organization's Dr. John O'Neill in Eritrea, population increases and people living longer will result in significant increases in the number of people with cataracts. The IEF is striving to meet this challenge through Sightreach Surgical by reducing the expense of cataract surgery. By making ophthalmic products available at lower cost, eye care providers in economically disadvantaged regions will be able to restore sight for many people for whom this service was simply out of reach. In addition, the IEF's Gifts In Kind program provides donated supplies, so that the truly indigent continue to receive care. Ironically, the doctors say, it is the lack not just of nutrition and medical care, but also of such basic things as sunglasses and hats with brims that contributes to the high incidence of cataracts in places such as Africa.
The IEF is also a pioneer in "river blindness" control. The technical name of this disease is onchocerciasis. Besides distributing medicines, the IEF educates health officials and community leaders. As a result, the threat of "river blindness", especially in Cameroon and Malawi, is receding. IEF experts point out that adherence to basic hygiene standards goes a long way toward reducing the incidence of "river blindness" and other avoidable eye diseases.
The IEF's key ally in the battle against eye diseases in Bolivia is the Centro de Promocion Agropecuaria Campesina (CEPAC). CEPAC has launched a 5-year program focussing on "childhood blindness", one manifestation of which is Retinopathy of Prematurity (ROP). This condition occurs when an infant is born prematurely and/or underweight, and blood vessel growth in the eye becomes abnormal. Premature infants are often put into incubators to give their immature lungs extra oxygen. High levels of oxygen can cause the blood vessels in the eyes' retinas to grow abnormally. When the oxygen is withdrawn, the abnormal vessels die leaving scar tissue leading to detachment of the retina. Despite the prevailing view that nothing can be done about this, it has been shown that if premature infants in incubators are carefully monitored, the symptoms can be detected in time to save the infant. Besides, laser treatment can successfully reverse ROP. Many developing countries, as well as in the former Soviet bloc, which now shares their eye problems, are acquiring the resources to develop neonatal units with incubators, and can now save more and smaller infants.
The second leading cause of avoidable blindness, trachoma is a disease of poverty. Over the past two years, the IEF has gathered data and conducted surveys in five countries to determine the prevalence of trachoma. The IEF is developing a program which focuses on trachoma control in Mozambique and is achieving significant results in Malawi. There has been a significant reduction in active trachoma in Chikwawa District, Malawi, according to Dr. Paul Courtright, director of the Chikwawa Blindness and Trachoma Survey conducted in August 1999. The survey found that trachoma in children was 14% in 1999, down from 36.7% in 1983.
Contrary to the widely held opinion that only massive amounts of funds can wipe out the four scourges of eyesight in the third World, the IEF has shown that relatively cheap measures like the distribution of Vitamin A supplies, and sanitation and public health education can go a long way to ensuring permanent eye health.
Questions 29-35
Complete the following notes using information from the passage. Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS OR A NUMBER in boxes 29-35 on your answer sheet.
The International Eye Foundation
* was set up in 1995
* as a Example Answer: non-governmental organization
* aims to wipe out 29 and operates the 30 program in poor parts of the world
* an important part of its work is supplying 31 It plans to extend this service to 32
* it will tackle the problem of cataracts through 33
* its Bolivian collaborator specializes in treatment of 34
* it has gathered information on trachoma from 35
Questions 36-39
Complete the following sentences using information in the passage. Choose the appropriate phrase A-C from the list in the box and write its letter in boxes 36-39 on your answer sheet. You may use any phrase more than once.
A an
B less... than/an
C as
36. Eye diseases are of a problem in the old Soviet bloc in the Thirld World.
37. "River blindness" is serious in some parts of Africa in others.
38. The IEF has saved the sight of children it thought it would.
39. Four diseases account for cases of blindness all other causes.
Questions 40-42
Below are some of the wrong ideas that the passage states people have about blindness. Match each misconception I-IV with TWO Counterarguments A-M used in the passage to argue against them. Write the appropriate letters A-M in boxes 40-42 on your answer sheet.
MISCOMCEPTION COUNTERARGUMENTS
I. Eradicating eye diseases is very expensive.
A. Four diseases cause avoidable blindness.
B. Monitoring of infants in incubators can prevent ROP.
II. Little is being done to tackle eye diseases in the Third World.
C. NGOs are putting a lot of effort into this work.
D. Population increases and people live longer.
III. Sophisticated equipment is needed to ensure eye health.
E. Sunglasses and hats with brims can help prevent cataracts.
F. Adherence to basic hygiene standards reduces cases of blindness.
IV. Doctors are helpless when faced with cases of ROP.
G. By using volunteers, the cost can be kept to the minimum.
H. USAID provides funds for IEF programs.
I. Xerophthalmia does not kill young children.
J. Relatively cheap measures like providing Vitamin A have proved effective.
K. Laser treatment can reverse ROP damage.
L. The IEF educates health officials and community leaders.
M. Trachoma is a disease of poverty.
Example Answer
Counter arguments for Misconception I: A & G
Counter arguments for Misconception II: 40
Counter arguments for Misconception III: 41
Counter arguments for Misconception IV: 42
Academic Reading Test 3
INTERNATIONAL ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TESTING SYSTEM
ACADEMIC READING
TEST 3
TIME ALLOWED:
NUMBER OF QUESTIONS:
1 hour39
Instructions
WRITE ALL YOUR ANSWERS ON THE ANSWER SHEET
The test is in 3 sections:
Reading Passage 1 Questions 1-13
Reading Passage 2 Questions 14-27
Reading Passage 3 Questions 28-39
Remember to answer all the questions. If you are having trouble with a question, skip it and return to it later.
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13 which are based on Reading Passage 1.
Hypnosis: Medical Tool or Illusion?
A The image most people have of the mysterious art of hypnotism is of a stage trick. But hypnotists are much more likely nowadays to be scientists seeking ways to probe the subconscious mind, or find a new way to relieve pain. But is hypnosis a real phenomenon? If so, what is it useful for? Over the past few years, researchers have found that hypnotized individuals actively respond to suggestions even though they sometimes perceive the dramatic changes in thought and behavior they experience as happening "by themselves." During hypnosis, it is as though the brain temporarily suspends its attempts to authenticate incoming sensory information. Some people are more hypnotizable than others, although scientists still don't know why. To study any phenomenon properly, researchers must first have a way to measure it. In the case of hypnosis, that yardstick is the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scales. The Stanford scales, as they are often called, were devised in the late 1950s by Stanford University psychologists. One version of the Stanford scales consists of a series of 12 activities—such as holding one's arm outstretched or sniffing the contents of a bottle—that test the depth of the hypnotic state. In the first instance, individuals are told that they are holding a very heavy ball, and they are scored as "passing" that suggestion if their arm sags under the imagined weight. In the second case, subjects are told that they have no sense of smell, and then a vial of ammonia is waved under their nose. If they have no reaction, they are deemed very responsive to hypnosis; if they grimace and recoil, they are not.
B Researchers with very different theoretical perspectives now agree on several fundamental principles of hypnosis. The first is that a person's ability to respond to hypnosis is remarkably stable during adulthood. In addition, a person's responsiveness to hypnosis also remains fairly consistent regardless of the characteristics of the hypnotist: the practitioner's gender, age and experience have little or no effect on a subject's ability to be hypnotized. Similarly, the success of hypnosis does not depend on whether a subject is highly motivated or especially willing. A very responsive subject will become hypnotized under a variety of experimental conditions and therapeutic settings, whereas a less susceptible person will not, despite his or her sincere efforts. (Negative attitudes and expectations can, however, interfere with hypnosis.)
C Under hypnosis, subjects do not behave as passive automatons but instead are active problem solvers who incorporate their moral and cultural ideas into their behavior while remaining exquisitely responsive to the expectations expressed by the experimenter. Nevertheless, the subject does not experience hypnotically suggested behavior as something that is actively achieved. To the contrary, it is typically deemed as effortless—as something that just happens. People who have been hypnotized often say things like "My hand became heavy and moved down by itself" or "Suddenly I found myself feeling no pain." Many researchers now believe that these types of disconnections are at the heart of hypnosis. In response to suggestion, subjects make movements without conscious intent, fail to detect exceedingly painful stimulation or temporarily forget a familiar fact. Of course, these kinds of things also happen outside hypnosis—occasionally in day-to-day life and more dramatically in certain psychiatric and neurological disorders.
D Scientists think that hypnosis may relieve pain by decreasing the activity of brain areas involved in the experience of suffering. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans of horizontal and vertical brain sections were taken while the hands of hypnotized volunteers were dunked into painfully hot water. The activity of the somatosensory cortex, which processes physical stimuli, did not differ whether a subject was given the hypnotic suggestion that the sensation would be painfully hot or that it would be minimally unpleasant. In contrast, a part of the brain known to be involved in the suffering aspect of pain, the anterior cingulate cortex, was much less active when subjects were told that the pain would be minimally unpleasant.
E Perhaps nowhere has hypnosis engendered more controversy than over the issue of "recovered" memory. Cognitive science has established that people are fairly adept at discerning whether an event actually occurred or whether they only imagined it. But under some circumstances, we falter. We can come to believe (or can be led to believe) that something happened to us when, in fact, it did not. One of the key cues humans appear to use in making the distinction between reality and imagination is the experience of effort. Apparently, at the time of encoding a memory, a "tag" cues us as to the amount of effort we expended: if the event is tagged as having involved a good deal of mental effort on our part, we tend to interpret it as something we imagined. If it is tagged as having involved relatively little mental effort, we tend to interpret it as something that actually happened to us. Given that the calling card of hypnosis is precisely the feeling of effortlessness, we can see why hypnotized people can so easily mistake an imagined past event for something that happened long ago. Hence, something that is merely imagined can become ingrained as an episode in our life story.
F So what are the medical benefits of hypnosis? A 1996 National Institutes of Health technology assessment panel judged hypnosis to be an effective intervention for alleviating pain from cancer and other chronic conditions. Voluminous clinical studies also indicate that hypnosis can reduce the acute pain experienced by patients undergoing burn-wound debridement, children enduring bone marrow aspirations and women in labor. The pain-relieving effect of hypnosis is often substantial, and in a few cases the degree of relief matches or exceeds that provided by morphine. Hypnosis can boost the effectiveness of psychotherapy for disorders such as obesity, insomnia, anxiety and hypertension.
Questions 1-5
Reading passage 1 has six paragraphs (A-F) . Choose the most suitable heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below. Write the appropriate numbers (i-x) in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet. Paragraph A has been done for you as an example.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs so you will not use all of them. You may use any heading more than once.
Example Answer
Paragraph A v
List of Headings
i. Effect on the Brain
ii. What Hypnosis can't do
iii. Hypnotism for All
iv. Potential for Healing
v. Scientists' Findings
vi. Experiments with Hypnosis
vii. Response of a Hypnotized Person
viii. The Dangers of Hypnotism
ix. Hypnosis and Memory
x. Growth of Interest in Hypnotism
1. Paragraph B
2. Paragraph C
3. Paragraph D
4. Paragraph E
5. Paragraph F
Questions 6-8
In the following summary of the reading passage, fill in the blanks with one word each from the list below. Write your answers in boxes 6-8 on your answer sheet.
Hypnotism has traditionally been used as a form of 6. But recently scientists have begun to study this 7 seriously. They are becoming convinced that hypnotism can be used not only to relieve physical pain but also as an adjunct to 8.
List of Words
1. subjects 2. entertainment 3. behavior 4. information 5. phenomenon
6. psychotherapy 7. suggestion 8. memory 9. morphine
Questions 9-13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the reading passage? In boxes 9-13 write:
YES if the statement agrees with the information given
NO if the statement does not agree with the information given
NOT GIVEN if there is no information about this
9. Scientists have found out what makes some people easier to hypnotize than others.
10. A person who does not recoil from the smell of ammonia is not deeply hypnotized.
11. Hypnotism can be a substitute for anesthesia.
12. Hypnotism can slow the action of part of the brain.
13. More doctors are learning the technique of hypnotism.
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-27 which are based on Reading Passage 2.
NEW PLAN FOR AFRICAN REVIVAL
A African leaders have been working to make their Millennium Action Plan (MAP) for African recovery more attractive to investors and providers of financial support from outside the continent. The plan is the brainchild of Thabo Mbeki, president of South Africa, who wanted a way of bringing to life his vision of an "African renaissance."
B The mood of the UN millennium summit last year suggested that the world might be ready to help. Later, Tony Blair let it be known that he wanted a plan for Africa to feature in his second term as Britain's prime minister, but that he also wanted the initiative for this plan to come from Africa, and that he would then respond.
C This is what is happening. Mr Mbeki will, with the help of Mr Blair, present the plan to the G8 summit in Genoa later this year. The plan's central thesis is that Africa's development depends on its full involvement in the global economy, and that this requires a mixture of reform in Africa and assistance from other countries. The most important reforms are: establishing peace, and more democratic government; respecting human rights; investing in people by giving them better health and education; diversifying economies, and encouraging trade both within Africa and with the outside world; combating disease and boosting new technologies.
D In return for the promised reforms, the plan asks the developed world for more debt relief, the removal of trade barriers and the ending of its farm subsidies. Aid is low on the agenda, being mentioned only in the last few pages. However, some African leaders, represented by Mr. Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe, strongly believe that it is their right to claim more aid from the developed world in compensation for past exploitation.
E But in Africa, as in other parts of the Third World, any program that does not address the question of debt repayment is doomed to failure. In many countries in Africa governments are collecting billions of dollars from their people and giving the sums to Western governments and banks in loan repayments. Little is left for health care and education even when there is an emergency such as the one of AIDS. Last year, African countries paid $15 billion in foreign debt. But the debt keeps on growing. It is now estimated to stand between $315 billion and $375 billion.
F According to the World Bank report titled "African Development Indicators", the African people face problems in all aspects of life. One is poverty. About 300 million people, almost nearly half of the continent's population survives on less than 65 cents a day. The average GNP is US $492, but in 24 countries it is less than $350. Ethiopia's GNP is below $100; the Democratic Republic of Congo, less than $110; Burundi, less than $120; and Sierra Leone, less than $130. Most of the poor people are constantly moving to urban areas and swelling the population in town and city slums. Another is health care. This is one of the areas where the IMF and World Bank policies have had a huge impact. Governments have been forced to slash health care funding, and the result is shown by the increased infant mortality rates. Countries that had made some progress in reducing infant mortality rates in the 1960s and 1970s are now faced with increased mortality rates. Mortality rate in Africa is 10% but on average about 151 of every 1,000 children die before the age of 5. Very small improvement has been made on this. Developing countries have mortality rates ranging from 6 to 8. On top of this, the AIDS epidemic is having a disastrous effect on life expectancy. The third problem is poor education. Illiteracy levels remain at 41%, on average. For women the number is at 49%. In some countries, the progress made in the 1960s and 1970s is being reversed, because the high cost of education is cutting the school enrolment levels and as well as increasing dropout rates.
G Zambia, host to the upcoming Organisation of African Unity (OAU) summit, has called for concerted action" to deal with these problems. "The challenges that our founding fathers sought to address 38 years ago remain alive and relevant in today's world," Zambian Vice-President Enoch Kavindele told the OAU's council of ministers. Part of this "concerted action" is a move to integrate the OAU into a more comprehensive body to be called the African Union (AU). The AU, modeled loosely on the European Union, is the idea of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi. It will consist of an executive, a central bank, a monetary fund, a parliament and a court of justice. In another move, Mbeki is pushing for the merger of the MAP with the Omega Plan. The latter, spearheaded by Senegalese President Abdoulaye Wade, has set goals and defined financial means to narrow infrastructural gaps. The merger plan will be presented to the upcoming OAU summit.
Questions 14-19
Reading Passage 2 has 7 paragraphs (A-G). State which paragraph discusses each of the points below. Write the appropriate letter (A-G) in boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet.
Example Answer
The debilitating effect of debt on Africa. E
14 The problems ordinary Africans face
15 Efforts to find a unified voice for Africa
16 Demand for aid from rich countries
17 Proposed reforms to be undertaken by African countries
18 The new plan to attract more funding for Africa
19 A favorable international response
Questions 20-23
Which of the ideas below are associated with the following people? In boxes 20-23 write
M if the idea is associated with Robert Mugabe
T if the idea is associated with Thabo Mbeki
G if the idea is associated with Muammar Gaddafi
20 A proposal to attract more investment in Africa
21 The developed world owes compensation to Africa.
22 Africa should copy the European Union.
23 "African renaissance"
Questions 24-27
Using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS answer the following questions.
Write your answers in boxes 24-27 on your answer sheet.
23 What did Blair want Africans to do?
24 What is the biggest problem faced by people trying to help Africa?
26 Why has the life expectancy dropped drastically in Africa?
27 What strategy have African leaders adopted to solve their problems?
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 28-39 which are based on Reading Passage 3.
NZ CORE VALUES UNDER THREAT
PART A
The core values that are vital to New Zealanders' sense of themselves and their attraction for outsiders are under threat from the values, technologies and lifestyles of the global economy. Our own indigenous New Zealand experience is in danger of being swamped by a pre-packaged multinational culture. Our food is threatened by genetic engineering, pesticides, antibiotics and growth hormones.
Ozone depletion from the aerosols and refrigerants we used 20 years ago is forcing today's children to keep away from what used to be health-giving sunshine and fresh air. Our vaunted "egalitarian society" is being destroyed by global economic competition, increasing the gap between the rich and the poor and sending New Zealand jobs overseas.
The rules of the global economy even threaten our national sovereignty. Our food standards, for instance, are dictated from abroad. And food labeling, environmental standards and even the buying of local produce by government departments can be seen as being against the rules of the World Trade Organization—as barriers in the way of free trade.
The result is that we have created a dysfunctional society, in which social connection and cohesion are being undermined. Alongside this is a widespread disillusion and cynicism about the political process. Leadership demands courage and ethics, while ethics must be rooted in a sensitivity to human wholeness, potential and capability.
PART B
(A) Central to building wholesome ethics is education. Unsurprisingly, employers still value reliability, honesty and loyalty more than paper qualifications. So, character formation should be to the fore in the school curriculum. Nobody is born with a perfectly formed character or set of skills. About two decades of nurture and learning are necessary. In the formation of the characters of young people, it is essential to stress responsibility to our fellow members of society, as well as to the environment we all live in.
(B) We can not restore the core values that most of us still cherish by the pursuit of material goods. Human relationships must be nurtured as well. Relationships are full of surprise, delight and frustration. You have to work at them, and you get back from them in proportion to what you put in.
(C) The most reliable glue ever discovered to keep the fabric of society together is the family. It is sound parenting that forms a solid foundation on which to build—or nowadays to rebuild —the core values which permit human beings to thrive rather than to become disillusioned and broken.
(D) The long-term answer to the problem of our fragmented society is to make sure that every child is securely attached to a home with preferably one parent of each gender and playmates by the age of three. Much scholarship shows that secure attachment to family and friends early in life is our best predictor of all good life outcomes, including mental health, relationships, educational success, and avoidance of crime. We must extend this early formation of a good parent-child relationship to our relationships with each other, and then to other nations, with future generations, and with nature and other species. Successful relationships are based on respect rather than dominance or subservience, and respect goes a long way to harmonizing race relations.
PART C
Because of the small size of New Zealand, we must be careful that we are not economically strangled by the large multinational corporations as other small countries have been, after they opened their doors too widely. We can survive and thrive in this new world order by taking advantage of our fertile land and highly educated people. With this endowment, we are capable of having one of the highest qualities of life in the world.
We can develop a draft vision that is tested and further developed with the participation of all the people. A set of benchmarks can be published, showing where we stand socially, economically and environmentally. On the basis of these, we can plan improvements to our standard of living. Then a people-focussed strategy can be created to bring together organizations and individuals to work toward the goals.
Questions 28-31
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Part A of Reading Passage 3. In boxes 28-31 on your answer sheet write
YES if the statement agrees with the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
Example Answer
New Zealanders are in danger of losing control of their own laws YES
28 New Zealanders are proud of their political system.
29 New Zealand should raise tariff barriers against foreign goods.
30 Globalization is increasing unemployment in New Zealand.
31 New Zealand's core values are admired by foreigners.
Questions 32-35
These questions are based on Part B of Reading Passage 3. In paragraphs A-D the author describes four factors by which the core values of New Zealand society may be rebuilt. Match the list of factors (i-vi) to the paragraphs. Write the appropriate number (i-vi) in boxes 32-35 on your answer sheet.
Paragraphs Factors
32 Paragraph A i. Human relationships
33 Paragraph B ii. Reliability
34 Paragraph C iii. Glue
35 Paragraph D iv. Secure attachments
v. Education
vi. The family
Questions 36-38
Based on your reading of Part C, complete the sentences below with words taken from the passage. Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 36-38 on your answer sheet.
Small countries which embrace globalization recklessly have sometimes been 36 Its land and people are the 37 which can give New Zealand an advanced standard of living.
Goals for improving the lives of New Zealanders can be planned based on 38.
Question 39
Choose the appropriate letter A-D and write it in box 39 on your answer sheet.
39 An alternative heading for Passage 3 could be:
A Restoring New Zealand's Egalitarian Spirit
B Shielding New Zealand from Globalization
C Making New Zealand a Wholesome Society
D What Happened to New Zealand's Core values?
Academic Reading Test 4
INTERNATIONAL ENGLISH LANGUAGE
TESTING SYSTEM
ACADEMIC READING
TEST 4
TIME ALLOWED:
NUMBER OF QUESTIONS:
1 hour38
Instructions
WRITE ALL YOUR ANSWERS ON THE ANSWER SHEET
The test is in 3 sections:
Reading Passage 1 Questions 1-10
Reading Passage 2 Questions 11-25
Reading Passage 3 Questions 26-38
Remember to answer all the questions. If you are having trouble with a question, skip it and return to it later.
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-10, which are based on Reading Passage 1.
Question 1
1. The author of "Addictions and How to Tackle Them" refers to three types of
addiction. One of them is negative addiction. What are the other two?
Addictions and How to Tackle Them
An addiction is an activity or substance we repeatedly crave to experience, and for which we are willing if necessary to pay a price (or suffer an unwanted consequence). Common addictions involve alcohol, cigarettes, food, drugs, gambling,etc. This article discusses techniques and concepts which can be helpful in coping with addictive behavior.
Relatively minor addictions, such as watching too much television, eating a certain kind of candy, or lying in bed on weekend mornings, are often not even considered addictions, because the price paid for indulging them is not high. On the other hand, we tend to use the term "addict" to describe the person who, at least in the eyes of others, continues to indulge in addictive behavior long after it has become clear that the substantial price being paid was not worth the benefit. The individual who has lost career, house, family and friends because of cocaine use, but is unwilling to consider stopping, is an unfortunate example.
Negative addictions range from those with very minor negative consequences, to those as serious as the cocaine addict just mentioned, with much area in between. Although it is sometimes true that a negative addiction grows stronger (i.e., worse) over time, this is not necessarily, or even typically, true. For instance, most overweight individuals do not keep gaining and gaining weight, but rather settle into a weight range that, if far from ideal,is also not morbidly obese. On the other hand, even a constant level of addictive behavior (e.g., overspending $200 a week) can lead to an increasing level of negative consequences.
You may be surprised to learn that addictions can also be considered positive. Positive addictions are those in which the benefits outweigh the price. A common example would be the habit of regular exercise. The price of membership in a gym, the time involved and any clothing expense is outweighed by the benefits of better health, energy, self-confidence and appearance. As with negative addictions, positive addictions may not get stronger (i.e., better; greater benefits are obtained) over time, and there is a broad range of how much benefit is actually obtained.
What is common to both positive and negative addictions, and what helps us realize that they are two sides of the same coin, is the urge or craving to engage in the addictive behavior, and the satisfaction that is felt when the urge is acted upon. The urge is a state of tension and anticipation that is experienced as a desire for the substance or activity. The urge is also experienced as uncomfortable, perhaps intensely so, especially if it lasts long enough. Because we experience relief when the urge is acted upon, there is an increased likelihood that we will act on the urge again. One of the primary benefits of an addiction for many individuals is the fact that the urge can be driven away by the addictive behavior. Hunger, and eating to satisfy it, provide a good example of a (positive or negative, depending on whether the individual eats in a healthy or unhealthy manner) addiction.
Once having become a part of our behavior, pleasures (and the habits based on them) continue or die away depending on whether we continue to experience them as pleasurable. Life is a continuing process of developing, revising and outgrowing pleasures. Although we may never entirely abandon a well-established pleasure, the frequency with which we engage in it can diminish dramatically. Each of us can probably remember pleasures from childhood which were very strong at the time, but are now no longer very pleasurable. For instance, how may adults still routinely look for opportunities to play in the mud, or suck their thumbs, or be praised for using the bathroom instead of a diaper? Consequently, addictions both develop and possibly get outgrown according to the pleasure we believe them to provide us.
To summarize what has been said thus far about the definition and development of an addiction, an addiction is the habit of pacifying or blocking an urge by engaging in the desired activity or using the desired substance. The urge develops because past pleasurable experience and related benefits from the substance or activity are expected to reoccur on the next occasion. Urges are uncomfortable, and engaging in the addictive behavior is also experienced as pleasurable simply because (or perhaps only because) the urge is driven away. There is a broad range of prices and benefits for addictions. The addiction is negative if, for that individual, the price outweighs the pleasure and benefits. Various predisposing factors contribute to the development of an addiction. An addiction does not necessarily get stronger over time. If the pleasure expected from the addiction is the reduction of a negative mood, the addiction may, for that individual, be a primary means for coping with stress. In a strong addiction the addictive behavior has become integrated into many aspects of the individual's life. As we mature, the pleasures we crave also mature, and consequently our addictions can change.
So, if you decide that some activity you regularly indulge in is negatively addictive, how should you go about remedying the situation? Motivation is fundamental, because if you maintain motivation you can persist past any temporary obstacles. In most cases, the simplest way to establish and maintain motivation is to have an accurate and complete Benefits of Stopping/Cutting Back list, and to revise this list to reflect the changes that are occurring as progress and setbacks occur. From this list make a shorter Major Benefits list, the benefits which are the primary reasons you are stopping or cutting back. A Major Benefits list may be easier to remember than the entire original list. If these benefits are important enough to you, remembering them (and perhaps picturing them) regularly will be your motivation. As in learning any new skill, setbacks and rough spots should be expected, and made the most of as opportunities for learning. Do not allow setbacks to become distorted evidence for incorrect beliefs. Any skill can be improved upon with time and consistent practice, and good advice.
Questions 2-4
Complete the sentences below with words taken from Reading Passage 1. Use NO MORE THAN ONE WORD OR NUMBER for each blank. Write your answers in boxes 2-4 on your answer sheet.
2. An addiction is considered to be getting stronger when it provides greater for the addict.
3. Addictions function to or an urge.
4. A negative addiction is one for which the price the addict pays the reward.
Questions 5-8
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer of Reading Passage 1? In boxes 5-8 on your answer sheet write
YES if the statement agrees with the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
5. All addictions ultimately damage a person's health.
6. Addiction to a substance is more harmful than addiction to an activity.
7. The pleasure of a habit often fades with the passage of time.
8. If the frequency of addictive behavior is controlled, the harm can also be controlled.
Questions 9-10
Using NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS, answer the following questions. Write your answers in boxes 9 and 10 on your answer sheet.
9. What, according to the author, is the most important thing in conquering an addiction?
10. The author suggests two techniques for utilizing a list of Major Benefits. Name one of these.
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 11-25 which are based on Reading Passage 2.
FACING THE PAST
The perception of archaeologists and Native Americans as adversaries in the writing of Indian history understandably captures much media attention. Ten years after the passage of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), tensions remain high over fundamental questions raised by NAGPRA and related legal and ethical challenges affecting how archaeology is practiced in the United States. No Native American burial site may be disturbed without express permission from the local authorities, who in turn must get permission from the council of the local Native American tribe. Jeffrey L. Hantman, associate professor and chair of the department of anthropology at the University of Virginia, said, "From our own experience, as representatives of archaeological and Native American communities, we know that controversy does not have to be the norm. Our efforts over the past decade tell us that a cooperative relationship between Native American tribes and archaeologists is not only possible, but is beneficial in ways we ourselves did not initially imagine. We have learned to listen to each other's interests and needs concerning the respectful treatment of archaeological sites, objects, and human remains. We know that clearcut answers and consensus on some ethical questions are not readily available and that members of the communities to which we belong may not always agree with all of our decisions."
During the University of Virginia's Rapidan Mound study, which led to the October 1998 reburial of remains of hundreds of Monacans from that site, meetings were held with the Monacan Tribal Council about the work and the possible retention of a sample for possible future study. After much discussion and compromise, the Council permitted a sample to be kept. In the case of the Hayes Creek Mound, the keeping of samples was not desired by the Tribe, but in those discussions a member of the Council inquired about facial reconstruction. To the Monacan tribal members, none of whom had seen any image of their ancestors prior to photographs dating to ca. 1914, it became a collective and decidedly humanistic wish. Could they see one or more of their ancestors' faces? The skull of a Monacan woman dug up in 1901 provided the basis for this reconstruction, affording today's Monacans a look at their ancestors.
For a whole year, forensic artist Sharon Long of Sparks, Nevada, worked on reconstructing the faces of a Monacan Indian man and woman who lived in what is now west-central Virginia between A.D. 1000 and 1400. The moving force behind the project has been the modern descendants of these people. Their motive, quite simple and yet quite powerful, is to see the faces of their ancestors.
After the skull is cleaned, minute measurements are taken to determine the depth the skin would have been at the various parts of the head. Then a false skin is built up on the skull using strips of clay. When this is completed satisfactorily, a separate clay model of the head is made. A reproduction of the head, of which the face is the most important part in this project, is achieved from a latex mold taken from the model.
The skulls on which the reconstructions are based were removed, along with the skeletal remains of hundreds of people from a mound on Hayes Creek, by antiquarian E.P. Valentine in 1901. Valentine took them to Richmond, where they were displayed in a museum founded by his family. By 1990, the remains had been placed in the care of Virginia's Department of Historic Resources. Historical and archaeological evidence links these remains to the Monacan Indians, who, despite Thomas Jefferson's prediction that their culture would soon die out, still live in the area today. This evidence is strong enough for the remains to be returned to the Monacans under NAGPRA. The Monacan Tribal Council, in discussing the disposition of the remains with Hantman, raised the possibility of having facial reconstructions made from these ancestral remains. Karenne Wood, director of historic research for the Monacan Indian Nation, and Diane Shields, the coordinator of historic research, applied to the Virginia Humanities Foundation for a grant to fund the facial reconstructions.
The reconstructions of the ancient Monacan faces are now displayed in the Monacan Ancestral Museum in Amherst, Virginia. "Monacan tribal members were eager to see the reproduced likenesses of their ancestors," said Wood. "Many hurried to visit the museum once the reconstructions had arrived. Several tribal members noted a resemblance between the likenesses and two Monacan people of the previous generation. These tribal members were thrilled to realize that Monacan identity is still so recognizable. They left the museum with a renewed sense of pride in their Indian heritage and perhaps a better understanding of the cultural continuity that has allowed the Monacan Nation to survive."
Questions 11-13
The author of Reading Passage 2 mentions several influences which led to the successful reconstruction of the Monacan faces. One of these was the University of Virginia. Identify THREE other influences. Using NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS for each answer, write the three influences separately in boxes 11-13 on your answer sheet.
Questions 14-18
The sentences below describe the various stages in the reconstruction of the face of an ancient Monacan Indian. Rearrange them so that they are in the correct order.
14. A. Strips of clay are molded onto the skull to represent the skin.
15. B. The model is placed in a latex mold.
16. C. The depth of facial tissue is gauged.
17. D. A separate clay model of the built-up skull is made.
18. E. A reproduction of the face is produced.
