There are many ways of obtaining an understanding of people's behaviour. One of these is to study the objects discarded by a community, objects used in daily lives. The study of the refuse of a society is the basis for the science of archaeology in which the lives and behaviour of past societies are minutely examined. Some recent studies have indicated the degree to which rubbish is socially defined.
For several years the University of Arizona, USA, has been running a Garbage Project, in which garbage is collected, sorted out and noted. It began in 1973 with an arrangement whereby the City of Tucson collected for analysis garbage from randomly selected households in designated census collection districts. Since then the researchers have studied other cities, both in the USA and Mexico, refining their techniques and procedures in response to the challenges of validating and understanding the often unexpected results they have obtained. Garbage is sorted according to an extremely detailed schedule, a range of data for each item is recorded on a standardised coding form, and the researchers cross-tabulate their findings with information from census and other social surveys.
This Project arose out of courses designed to teach students at the University the principles of archaeological methodology and to sensitise them to the complex and frequently surprising links between cultural assumptions and physical realities. Often a considerable discrepancy exists between what people say they do or even think they do — and what they actually do. In one Garbage Project study, none of the Hispanic (Spanish-speaking) women in the sample admitted to using as much as a single serving of commercially-prepared baby food, clearly reflecting cultural expectations about proper mothering. Yet garbage from the Hispanic households with infants contained just as many baby food containers as garbage from non-Hispanic households with infants.
The Project leaders then decided to look not only at what was thrown away, but what happened to it after that. In many countries waste is disposed of in landfills; the rubbish is compacted and buried in the ground. So in 1987, the Project expanded its activities to include the excavation of landfills across the United States and Canada. Surprisingly, no one had ever attempted such excavations before.
The researchers discovered that far from being sites of chemical and biological activity, the interiors of waste landfills are rather inactive, with the possible exception of those established in swamps. Newspapers buried 20 or more years previously usually remained perfectly legible, and a remarkable amount of food wastes of similar age also remained intact.
While discarded household products such as paints, pesticides, cleaners and cosmetics result in a fair amount of hazardous substances being contained in municipal landfills, toxic leachates pose considerably less danger than people fear, provided that a landfill is properly sited and constructed. Garbage Project researchers have found that the leachates do not migrate far, and tend to get absorbed by the other materials in the immediate surrounds.
The composition of landfills is also strikingly different from what is commonly believed. In 1990 US survey people were asked whether particular items were a major cause of garbage problems. Disposable nappies (baby diapers) were identified as a major cause by 41 per cent of the survey respondents, plastic bottles by 29 per cent, all forms of paper by six per cent, and construction debris by zero per cent. Yet Garbage Project data shows that two per cent of the volume of landfills and plastic bottles less than one percent. On the other hand, over 40 per cent of the volume of landfills is composed of paper and around 12 per cent is construction debris.
Packaging — the paper and plastic wrapping around goods bought — has also been seen as a serious cause of pollution, But while some packaging is excessive, the Garbage Project researchers note that most manufacturers use as little as possible, because less is cheaper. They also point out that modern project packaging frequently functions to reduce the overall size of the solid-waste stream.
This apparent paradox is illustrated by the results of a comparison of garbage from a large and socially diverse sample of households in Mexico City with a similarly large and diverse sample in three United States cities. Even after correcting for differences in family size, US households generated far less garbage than the Mexican ones. Because they are much more dependent on processed and packaged foods than Mexican households, US households produce much less food debris. (And most of the leaves, husks, etc. that the US processor has removed from the food can be used in the manufacture of other products, rather than entering the waste stream as is the likely fate with fresh produce purchased by households.)
One criticism made of Western societies is that the people are wasteful, and throw things away while they are still useable. This, however, does not seem to be true. Garbage Project data showed that furniture and consumer appliances were entering the solid waste stream at a rate very much less than would be expected from production and service-life figures. So the researchers set up a study to track the fate of such items and thus gained an insight into the huge informal and commercial trade in used goods that rarely turns up in official calculations and statistics.
The Garbage Project's work shows how many misconceptions exist about garbage. The researchers are therefore critical of attempts to promote one type of waste management, such as source reduction or recycling, over others, such as incineration or landfilling. Each has its advantages and disadvantages, and what may be appropriate for one locality may not be appropriate for another.
Glossary
Leachate: water carrying impurities which has filtered through the soil
Questions 1 - 7
Complete the following notes using information from the passage. Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS OR A NUMBER in boxes 1 - 7 on your answer sheet.
The Garbage Project
started in 1973
organised by (Example) Answer: University of Arizona
first studied garbage in the city of ________ (1) ________ since then has studied it in other cities in USA and ________ (2) ________
method: garbage collected and sorted, the information noted on ________ (3) ________
findings compared with ________ (4) ________ and other social surveys
reason for the Project: show students the ________ (5) ________ of archaeological ________ (6) ________
from 1987 Garbage Project studied ________ (7) ________ in USA and Canada
Questions 8 - 11
Complete the following sentences using information in the passage. Choose the appropriate phrase A - C from the list in the box and write its letter in boxes 8 -11 on your answer sheet. You may use any phrase more than once.
A more ... than
B less... than, fewer ... than
C as many ... as, as much ... as
8. Hispanic women used ________ baby food ________ they said they did.
9. After excavating landfills the Garbage Project researcher found that there were ________ plastic bottles ________ people thought.
10. Mexican families create ________ garbage ________ American families.
11. Consumer appliances are reused ________ ________ was officially predicted.
练习二
Keeping Cut Flowers
While everybody enjoys fresh cut flowers around their house, few people know how to keep them for as long as possible. This may be done by keeping in mind a few simple facts.
An important thing to remember about cut flowers is that they are sensitive to temperature. For example, studies have shown that cut carnations retain their freshness eight times longer when kept at 12℃ than when kept at 26℃. Keeping freshly harvested flowers at the right temperatures is probably the most important aspect of flower care.
Flowers are not intended by nature to live very long. Their biological purpose is simply to attract birds or insects, such as bees, for pollination. After that, they quickly wither and die. The process by which flowers consume oxygen and emit carbon dioxide, called respiration, generates the energy the flower needs to give the flower its shape and colour. The making of seeds also depends on this energy. While all living things respire, flowers have a high level of respiration. A result of all this respiration is heat, and for flowers, the level of heat relative to the mass of the flower is very high. Respiration also brings about the eventual death of the flower, thus the greater the level of respiration, the sooner the flower dies.
Questions 1 - 3
Complete the sentences below with words taken from Reading Passage 1. Use NO MORE THAN ONE WORD or NUMBER for each blank. Write your answers in boxes 1 - 3 on your answer sheet.
1. A difference of 14℃ can extend the life of carnations by up to ________ times.
2. ________ and ________ are two aspects of a flower's appearance that depend on respiration.
3. Respiration is also necessary for the flowers to produce ________.
练习三
With all the hundreds of plant species used for food by th Australian Aborigines, it is perhaps surprising that only one, the Queensland nut, has entered into commercial cultivation as a food plant. The reason for this probably does not lie with an intrinsic lack of potential in Australian flora, but rather with the lack of exploitation of this potential. In Europe and Asia, for example, the main food plants have had the benefit of many centuries of selection and hybridisation, which has led to the production of forms vastly superior to those in the wild. Before the Europeans came, the Aborigines practised no agriculture and so there was no opportunity for such improvement, either deliberate or unconscious, in the quality of the edible plants.
Since 1788, there has, of course, been opportunity for selection of Australian food plants which might have led to the production of varieties that were worth cultivating. But Australian plants have probably "missed the bus". Food plants from other regions were already so far in advance after a long tradition of cultivation that it seemed hardly worth starting work on Australian species. Undoubtedly, the native raspberry, for example, could, with suitable selection and breeding programs, be made to yield a high-class fruit; but Australians already enjoy good raspberries from other areas of the world and unless some dedicated amateur plant breeder takes up the task, the Australian raspberries are likely to remain unimproved.
And so, today, as the choice of which food plants to cultivate in Australia has been largely decided. and as there is little chance of being lost for long periods in the bush, our interest in the subject of Australian food plants tends to relate to natural history rather than to practical necessity.
Questions 1 - 3
Complete the partial summary below. Choose ONE or TWO words from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 1 - 3 on your answer sheet.
Despite the large numbers of wild plants that could be used for food. only one, the ... (1) ... is being grown as a cash crop. Other edible plants in Australia, however much potential they have for cultivation, had not gone through the lengthy process of ... (2) ... that would allow their exploitation, because Aborigines were not farmers. Thus species such as the ... (3) ... which would be an agricultural success had it not had to compete with established European varieties at the time of European settlement are of no commercial value.
练习四
Developing Environmental Management Strategies
Strong and sustainable economic activity depends on healthy environmental management. It is being increasingly recognized by the public, government and industry that there is a need to shift smoothly from a "react and cure" approach to an "anticipate and prevent" approach. The mechanism governing this change started to appear three to four years ago and the momentum for change has been gathering steadily ever since.
Whilst the need to embrace these changes is almost universally accepted, the mechanisms for change and the priorities for action have been far from clear. The public and the media point to anecdotal evidence of lack of progress or setbacks, over a bewildering range of topics. These incidents are catalogued by local and national pressure groups to enhance their own campaigns for change. The Government, under pressure from the European Community, has introduced legislation which, although progressive, often appears to industry to be fragmented and diffcult to digest.
There is, therefore, a clear and often expressed need on the part of British and European management for techniques to identify and prioritize the key environmental issues for allocation of resources and action. The technique emerging as the most effective is a strategy which involves the formulation of a policy statement setting out the organization's philosophy on the environment and the aims to be achieved. A detailed assessment of the environmental status and performance of the operation is then undertaken, key issues identified and targets set. The performance of the operation or unit is regularly audited to measure progress towards the targets set. This environmental strategy is often called an Environmental Management Sytem or simply referred to as an Environmental Audit.
The need for environmental strategies
Over the past few years, the incentives for introducing such an Environmental Risk Management Strategy have changed as public attitude has evolved, insurance markets have hardened and national legislation has been enacted. Environmental Risk Management Strategies may therefore be implemented for reasons of insurance, market forces, acquisitions, national legislation or Environmental Accreditation Schemes.
The basic elements of the Environmental Strategies currently being proposed by most authorities are as follows:
Environmental strategy
An Environmental Strategy is a documented plan, comprising the drawing up of an Environmental Policy and an Initial Environmental Assessment, which provides prioritized recommendations for action and targets to be achieved. This is followed by regular audits to measure progress towards the targets.
Environmental policy
An Environmental Policy is a statement of the overall aims and principles of action of an organization with respect to the environment. It may be expressed in general terms, but it may also include quantitative targets.
Initial environmental assessment
An Initial Environmental Assessment is a comprehensive assessment of the environmental impact as a result of an organization's activities. It leads to a report to top management in which the key issues are identified and priorities for action allocated. This initial Environmental Assessment is referred to in the Draft British Standard as an Environmental Effects Inventory and in the Draft Eco-Audit scheme as an Environmental Review. The topics covered in Initial Assessments may include a review of management systems, a historical review of the site, assessment of emissions and impact on air, water and land as well as control and monitoring of emissions. Noise, odours, recycling, disposal and duty of care will usually come into the assessment, as will raw materials management, savings, transportation, storage, water conservation, energy management and products planning. Other important aspects of the assessment are the prevention and mitigation of accidents, unexpected and foreseen pollution and of course staff information, the relationship with the public and the need for Environmental Audits.
An Environmental Audit is systematic, documented, periodic and an objective evaluation of how well the organization's systems are performing, assessed against internal procedures and compliance with internal policies and statutory requirements. Both the Draft British Standard and Draft Eco-Audit scheme stipulate that the audits should be carried out by personnel independent of the plant or process being audited.
Environmental statements
Under the UK Environmental Protection Act the details declared in the application for Authorization to Operate are included in a Register which is open to the public. Such legislation also exists in many of the European Community countries.
The Eco-Audit scheme also proposes that organizations which are accredited under the scheme should regularly publish an environmental statement containing factual information and data on the environmental performance of each site.
Questions 1 - 6
The paragraph below is a summary of the first part of the reading passage. Complete the summary by choosing one or two words from the reading passage to complete the spaces 1 - 6. Write the words in boxes 1 - 6 on your answer sheet. The first one has been done for you as an example.
Summary: Developing Environmental Management Strategies
Example Answer
There has been a steady movement
towards mor efficient, proactive ... environmental management
Whilst the 1 is generally accepted, the means have yet to be agreed. Attempts at introducing 2 have, so far, been ineffective. Techniques are currently being defined for allocating 3 to act on key environmental issues. Policies are formulated, detailed assessments conducted and performance measured. These evaluations, or 4 , are carried out objectively by 5 personnel and 6 against both internal and external criteria.
READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1 - 13 which are based on Reading Passage 1.
Hypnosis: Medical Tool or Illusion?
A The image most people have of the mysterious art of hypnotism is of a stage trick. But hypnotists are much more likely nowadays to be scientists seeking ways to probe the subconscious mind, or find a new way to relieve pain. But is hypnosis a real phenomenon? If so, what is it useful for? Over the past few years, researchers have found that hypnotized individuals actively respond to suggestions even though they sometimes perceive the dramatic changes in thought and behavior they experience as happening "by themselves." During hypnosis, it is as though the brain temporarily suspends its attempts to authenticate incoming sensory information. Some people are more hypnotizable than others, although scientists still don't know why. To study any phenomenon properly, researchers must first have a way to measure it. In the case of hypnosis, that yardstick is the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scales. The Stanford scales, as they are often called, were devised in the late 1950s by Stanford University psychologists. One version of the Stanford scales consists of a series of 12 activities—such as holding one's arm outstretched or sniffing the contents of a bottle—that test the depth of the hypnotic state. In the first instance, individuals are told that they are holding a very heavy ball, and they are scored as "passing" that suggestion if their arm sags under the imagined weight. In the second case, subjects are told that they have no sense of smell, and then a vial of ammonia is waved under their nose. If they have no reaction, they are deemed very responsive to hypnosis; if they grimace and recoil, they are not.
B Researchers with very different theoretical perspectives now agree on several fundamental principles of hypnosis. The first is that a person's ability to respond to hypnosis is remarkably stable during adulthood. In addition, a person's responsiveness to hypnosis also remains fairly consistent regardless of the characteristics of the hypnotist: the practitioner's gender, age and experience have little or no effect on a subject's ability to be hypnotized. Similarly, the success of hypnosis does not depend on whether a subject is highly motivated or especially willing. A very responsive subject will become hypnotized under a variety of experimental conditions and therapeutic settings, whereas a less susceptible person will not, despite his or her sincere efforts. (Negative attitudes and expectations can, however, interfere with hypnosis.)
C Under hypnosis, subjects do not behave as passive automatons but instead are active problem solvers who incorporate their moral and cultural ideas into their behavior while remaining exquisitely responsive to the expectations expressed by the experimenter. Nevertheless, the subject does not experience hypnotically suggested behavior as something that is actively achieved. To the contrary, it is typically deemed as effortless—as something that just happens. People who have been hypnotized often say things like "My hand became heavy and moved down by itself" or "Suddenly I found myself feeling no pain." Many researchers now believe that these types of disconnections are at the heart of hypnosis. In response to suggestion, subjects make movements without conscious intent, fail to detect exceedingly painful stimulation or temporarily forget a familiar fact. Of course, these kinds of things also happen outside hypnosis—occasionally in day-to-day life and more dramatically in certain psychiatric and neurological disorders.
D Scientists think that hypnosis may relieve pain by decreasing the activity of brain areas involved in the experience of suffering. Positron emission tomography (PET) scans of horizontal and vertical brain sections were taken while the hands of hypnotized volunteers were dunked into painfully hot water. The activity of the somatosensory cortex, which processes physical stimuli, did not differ whether a subject was given the hypnotic suggestion that the sensation would be painfully hot or that it would be minimally unpleasant. In contrast, a part of the brain known to be involved in the suffering aspect of pain, the anterior cingulate cortex, was much less active when subjects were told that the pain would be minimally unpleasant.
E Perhaps nowhere has hypnosis engendered more controversy than over the issue of "recovered" memory. Cognitive science has established that people are fairly adept at discerning whether an event actually occurred or whether they only imagined it. But under some circumstances, we falter. We can come to believe (or can be led to believe) that something happened to us when, in fact, it did not. One of the key cues humans appear to use in making the distinction between reality and imagination is the experience of effort. Apparently, at the time of encoding a memory, a "tag" cues us as to the amount of effort we expended: if the event is tagged as having involved a good deal of mental effort on our part, we tend to interpret it as something we imagined. If it is tagged as having involved relatively little mental effort, we tend to interpret it as something that actually happened to us. Given that the calling card of hypnosis is precisely the feeling of effortlessness, we can see why hypnotized people can so easily mistake an imagined past event for something that happened long ago. Hence, something that is merely imagined can become ingrained as an episode in our life story.
F So what are the medical benefits of hypnosis? A 1996 National Institutes of Health technology assessment panel judged hypnosis to be an effective intervention for alleviating pain from cancer and other chronic conditions. Voluminous clinical studies also indicate that hypnosis can reduce the acute pain experienced by patients undergoing burn-wound debridement, children enduring bone marrow aspirations and women in labor. The pain-relieving effect of hypnosis is often substantial, and in a few cases the degree of relief matches or exceeds that provided by morphine. Hypnosis can boost the effectiveness of psychotherapy for disorders such as obesity, insomnia, anxiety and hypertension.
Questions 1 - 5
Reading passage 1 has six paragraphs (A - F). Choose the most suitable heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below. Write the appropriate numbers (i - x) in boxes 1 - 5 on your answer sheet. Paragraph A has been done for you as an example.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs so you will not use all of them. You may use any heading more than once.
Example Answer
Paragraph A v
List of Headings
i. Effect on the Brain
ii. What Hypnosis can't do
iii. Hypnotism for All
iv. Potential for Healing
v. Scientists' Findings
vi. Experiments with Hypnosis
vii. Response of a Hypnotized Person
viii. The Dangers of Hypnotism
ix. Hypnosis and Memory
x. Growth of Interest in Hypnotism
1. Paragraph B
2. Paragraph C
3. Paragraph D
4. Paragraph E
5. Paragraph F
Questions 6 - 8
In the following summary of the reading passage, fill in the blanks with one word each from the list below. Write your answers in boxes 6 - 8 on your answer sheet.
Hypnotism has traditionally been used as a form of 6 . But recently scientists have begun to study this 7 seriously. They are becoming convinced that hypnotism can be used not only to relieve physical pain but also as an adjunct to 8 .
List of Words
1. subjects 2. entertainment 3. behavior 4. information 5. phenomenon
6. psychotherapy 7. suggestion 8. memory 9. morphine
Questions 9 - 13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the reading passage? In boxes 9 - 13 write:
YES if the statement agrees with the information given
NO if the statement does not agree with the information given
NOT GIVEN if there is no information about this
9. Scientists have found out what makes some people easier to hypnotize than others.
10. A person who does not recoil from the smell of ammonia is not deeply hypnotized.
11. Hypnotism can be a substitute for anesthesia.
12. Hypnotism can slow the action of part of the brain.
13. More doctors are learning the technique of hypnotism.
第六课时
READING PASSAGE 1
You are advised to spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1 - 14 which are based on Reading Passage 1.
Conflict: Good Or Bad For An Organisation?
A We have made considerable progress in the last 25 years toward overcoming the negative stereotype given to conflict. Most behavioural scientists and an increasing number of practicing managers now accept that the goal of effective management is not to eliminate conflict. Rather, it's to create the right intensity of conflict, so as to realize its functional benefits. Since conflict can be good for an organisation, it is only logical to acknowledge that there may be times when managers will purposely want to increase its intensity. Let's briefly review how stimulating conflict can provide benefits for an organisation.
B Conflict is a means by which to bring about radical change. It's an effective device by which management can drastically change the existing power structure, current interaction patterns, and entrenched attitudes. Conflict facilitates group cohesiveness. While conflict increases hostility between groups, external threats tend to cause a group to pull together as a unit. Intergroup conflicts raise the extent to which members identify with their group and increase feelings of solidarity, while, at the same time, internal differences and irritations dissolve. Conflict improves group and organizational effectiveness. The stimulation of conflict initiates the search for new means and goals, and clears the way for innovation. The successful solution of a conflict leads to greater effectiveness, to more trust and openness, to greater attraction of members for each other, and to depersonalization for each other. In fact, it has been found that as the number of minor disagreement increases, the number of major clashes decreases. Conflicts brings about a slightly higher, more constructive level of tension. This enhances the chances of solving the conflicts in a way satisfactory to all parties concerned. When the level of tension is very low, the parties are not sufficiently motivated to do something about a conflict.
C Groups or organisations devoid of conflict are likely to suffer from apathy, stagnation, group think, and other debilitating diseases. In fact, more organisations probably fail because they have too little conflict, not because they have too much. Take a look at a list of large organisations that have failed or suffered serious financial setbacks over the past decade or two. You see names like E. F. Hutton, General Motors, Western Union, Gimbel's, K-mart, Morrison Knudsen, Eastern Airlines, Greyhound, and Digital Computer. The common thread running through these companies is that they stagnated. Their management became complacent and unable or unwilling to facilitate change. These organisations could have benefited by having had more conflict — the functional kind.
D It may be true that conflict is an inherent part of any group or organisation. It may not be possible to eliminate it completely. However, just because conflicts exist is no reason to defy them. Some conflict is dysfunctional, and it is one of management's major responsibilities to keep some kind of conflict intensity as low as humanly possible. The negative consequences of conflict can be devastating. The list of negatives associated with conflict is awesome. The most obvious are increased turnover, decreased employee satisfaction, inefficiencies between work units, sabotage, labour grievances and strikes, and physical aggression.
E The effect it could have on teamwork. A good manager builds a coordinated team. Conflict works against such an objective. A successful work group is like a successful sports team; each member knows his or her role and supports his or her teammates. When a team works well, the whole becomes greater than the sum of the parts. Management sometimes creates teamwork by minimizing internal conflicts and facilitating internal coordination. Competition is not the same as conflict. Competition and conflict should not be confused with each other. Conflict is behavior directed against another party, whereas competition is behavior aimed at obtaining a goal without interference from another party. Competition is healthy; it's the source of organizational vitality. Conflict, on the other hand, can be destructive.
F Managers who accept and stimulate conflicts sometimes don't survive in the organisations. The whole argument about the value of conflict may be moot if the majority of senior executives in an organisation view conflict traditionally. In the traditional view, any conflict will be seen as bad. Since the evaluation of a manager's performance is made by higher-level executives, those managers who do not succeed in eliminating conflicts are likely to be appraised negatively. This, in turn, will reduce opportunities for advancement. Any manager who aspires to move up in such an environment will be wise to follow the traditional view and eliminate any outward signs of conflict. Failure to follow this advice might result in the premature departure of the manager.
Questions 1 - 5
Reading Passage 1 has six paragraphs. Choose the most suitable headings for paragraph A - F from the list of headings below. Write the appropriate numbers (i - x) in boxes 1 - 5.
NB There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use all of them. You may use any of the headings more than once.
List of Heading
i. The Motivating Effects Of Conflict
ii. Our Changing Views Of Conflict
iii. The Dangers Of No Conflict
iv. The Dangers Of Conflict To Teamwork
v. Career Dangers Of Conflict To A Manager
vi. The Negative Side Of Conflict
vii. Conflict Destroys Teamwork
viii. Searching For Solution Through Tension
ix. Conflict And Change
x. Benefits Of Conflict
Example Answer
Paragraph A ii
1. Paragraph B
2. Paragraph C
3. Paragraph D
4. Paragraph E
5. Paragraph F
Questions 6 - 8
USE NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS to answer the following questions. Write your answers in boxes 6 - 8 on your answer sheet.
6. The author believes that the right view of conflict is to try and create the right ________.
7. The number of major conflicts will often become less when the number of minor ________.
8. The political danger of not managing conflict is great for managers because their performance is judged by ________.
Questions 9 - 14
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1? Write your answers in boxes 9 - 14 on your answer sheet.
YES if the statement agrees with the information
NO if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this in the passage
9. Conflict increases efficiency.
10. There was not enough conflict at K-mart so it stagnated.
11. The author thinks more conflict is always better.
12. The author feels that modern academics are still viewing conflict in the wrong way.
13. Teamwork, on the whole, is one area that may be negatively affected by conflict.
14. The author feels that low tension and low motivation may be related at times.
READING PASSAGE 2
You are advised to spend about 20 minutes on Questions 16 - 28 which are based on Reading Passage 2.
Play with mother is key to children's success (Mothers who did badly at school can still boost their young children's academic performance with stimulating activities at home). Mothers' (rather than fathers') own educational achievements have long been thought to be the key to children's progress at school. But government-funded research suggests that mothers can compensate for their lack of exam success if they offer their under-fives activities linked to literacy and numeracy.
Researchers from Oxford, Cardiff and London universities, who measured the attainments of more than 2,000 children at the ages of three and five, found that their mothers' education is important in accounting for differences between children. But what the mother did with the child was even more important. Those who talked frequently to their children, who played games with numbers and letters, read to them, took them to the library and taught them songs and nursery rhymes had a significant effect on their attainment both at the ages of three and five. Professor Pam Sammons, of London University's Institute of Education, said:"Children's progress is not completely determined by social disadvantage. What parents do with children is critically important. Parents who have no educational qualifications can still do many things to help their children. We need to encourage parents, particularly younger ones, to play with children and to talk to them."
Sammons said the findings emphasized the importance of policies for supporting families of under-threes, for example the government's Sure Start programme. MPs on the Select Committee for Education are investigating early years education. Ministers have provided a nursery, playgroup or school place for every four-year-old, but critics say that too many children are now in school reception classes, which are not equipped for them. There are more staff workers for each child in nurseries than in reception classes. The researchers, comparing children's achievements in math and literacy, found that playgroups and private day nurseries tended to do much less well than nursery schools, which combined education, day care and reception classes.
This research is consistent with previous studies that show the benefit of mother play in other areas such as in a child's creativity and social development using other devices such as music and toys. Music helps children connect the outer world of movement and sound with the inner world of feelings and observations. Children learn music the same way they learn language — by listening and imitating. Finger play promotes language development, motor skills and coordination, as well as self-esteem. Young children are proud when they sing a song and can do the accompanying finger movements. Listening to music also teaches important pre-reading skills. As youngsters use small drums or other percussion instruments (homemade or store-bought), they can play the rhythmic pattern of words.
Babies become social beings through watching their parents, and through interacting with them and the rest of the family and later with others. It is a crucial time to begin teaching by example how people should behave toward one another. Toys that help babies with social development are stuffed animals, animal mobiles and dolls. Even very small babies can socialize with them. The infant will often converse with animals prancing on the crib bumpers or revolving on mobile. Later, books and opportunities for make-believe and dress-up play also help children to develop social skills.
In the beginning, babies' hand movements are totally random. But within a few months those tiny hands will move with more purpose and control. A mother has a particularly important role in the development of purposeful movement by giving her baby's hands plenty of freedom; rather than keeping them swaddled or tucked under a blanket (except outdoor in cold weather). researchers suggest providing a variety of objects that are easy for small hands to pick up and manipulate, and that don't require fine dexterity. And since young babies usually won't grasp objects that are directly in front of them, a mother should offer these objects from the side.
Researchers suggest that mothers give babies ample of opportunity for "hands-on" experience with the following:
* Rattles that fit small hands comfortably. Those with two handles or grasping surfaces allow a baby to pass them from hand to hand, an important skill, and those that baby can put their mouth on will help bring relief when teething begins.
* They also suggest mothers use cradle gyms (they fit across a carriage, playpen or crib) that have a variety of parts for baby to grab hold of, spin, pull and poke. Beware of those, however, with strings more than 6 inches long, and take any gym down once your baby is able to sit up.
* Another useful play device is an activity board that requires a wide range of hand movements to operate, many of which your baby won't be able to intentionally maneuver for a while, but some of which even a young infant can set in motion accidentally with a swipe of a hand or foot. Besides the spinning, dialing, pushing, and pressing skills these toys encourage, they also teach the concept of cause and effect.
Questions 16 - 19
Complete the table below. Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 16 - 19 on your answer sheet.
A play device that helps children to understand the cause and effect of movement is the (16) .
Babies learn how to develop social behaviour by playing with (17) .
Research shows that learning music and a language are similar in that they both involve (18) .
Make believe (19) .
Questions 20 - 24
Choose one phrase A - H from the list of phrases to complete each key point below. Write the appropriate letters A - H in boxes 20 - 24 on your answer sheet.
NB There are more phrases A - H than sentences, so you will not use them all.
List of Phrases
A. Offer it from the side of the baby
B. Improve a child's imagination
C. Have strings more than six inches long
D. Teach cause and effect
E. Play and talk with your child
F. Require fine dexterity skills
G. Build social skills
H. Build pre-reading skills
20. Listening to music can help...
21. Researchers suggest mothers provide objects that do not ...
22. It is important that cradle gyms do not ...
23. Even if you have no educational qualifications, you should ...
24. If you give an object to a baby you should ...
Questions 25 - 28
Do the following statements reflect the claims in Reading Passage 2? In boxes 25 - 28 write:
YES if the statement reflects the writer's claims
NO if the statement contradicts the writer
NOT GIVEN if there is no in formation about this in the passage
25. The research lends support to the benefit of private day nurseries.
26. There is no shortage of nurseries, playgroup or school places.
27. Young babies at all ages benefit from mothers who talk and play games with them.
28. The text suggests one key problem with reception classes is lack of staff per child.
DO WE NEED CITIES ANY MORE?
A I don't want to live in a city. Perhaps we divide naturally into two types: those for whom cities are vibrant and exciting, a focus for human activity; and those for whom they are dirty, noisy and dangerous. It may be unfashionable, but I'm in the latter camp. I do not believe that we are a species whose behaviour improves in overcrowded conditions.
B A new study proposes a significant increase in the capacity of towns and cities through a combination of increased housing densities, lower onplot provision for cars and more onstreet parking, and the re-use of marginal open space that is "devoid of any amenity value". The benefit of this approach is to reduce the loss of green fields and to help "move towards more sustainable patterns of development".
C This study suggests that it would be possible to achieve a 25% increase in density in a typical provincial city without changing the traditional street scene, although it would be necessary to reduce the size of the houses and substitute parking spaces for garages. Therefore, the cost of this approach is to have more people living in smaller homes at higher densities, along streets that are lined with parked cars. Can we really accept the notion that space within dwellings may be reduced even further? In times when, we are told, living standards are rising in real terms, is it realistic to seek to reduce personal space standards?
D The streets of many inner suburbs are already lined with cars on both sides, reducing movement to a single lane. Increasing densities means accepting urban streets that are designed as linear car parks, bounded by even smaller living units and tempered only by occasional trees sprouting from the tarmac. Would the benefits of higher density be worth the disadvantages of increasing on-street parking? Can we achieve a satisfactory visual environment from such raw materials? Higher urban densities may be communally good for us, but they will fail to meet the aspirations of many prospective home owners.
E Those without economic choice can be directed to live in this way, but if we are to continue to rely on the private sector to produce this urban housing, it will need to appeal to the private developers' customers. Who will choose to live in these high-density developments of small dwellings, with minimal open space and a chance to park on the highway if you are lucky enough to find a space? The main consumers will be single people, couples without children, and perhaps some "empty nesters" (people whose children have grown up and left home). These are people who can choose to spend much of their time outside their home, making the most of those urban cultural opportunities or getting away at weekends to a country cottage or sporting activities.
F The combination of a young family and a mortgage restricts the mobility and spending power of many couples, Most people with a family will try to avoid bringing up their children in a cramped flat or house. Space for independent activity is important in developing the individual and in maintaining family equilibrium. The garden is the secure place where the children can work off excess energy.
G There is a danger that planners may take a dispassionate, logical view of how we should live, and seek to force society into that mould. A few years ago a European Commission study provided a good example of this. It took the view, quite sensibly, that housing should not be under-occupied because this is a waste of resources. Therefore, it would be much better if the many thousands of old ladies who live alone in large detached houses would move into small urban flats, thus releasing the large houses for families. What the study failed to recognise was that many of those old ladies prefer to continue to live in their family home with their familiar surroundings and, most importantly, with their memories. What is good for us is not necessarily what we want.
H The urban housing option may be technically sustainable, but individually unacceptable. There still seems to be a perception among planners that new housing investment can be forced into those areas that planners want to see developed, without proper consideration of where the prospective purchasers want to live. There is a fatal flaw in this premise. Housing developers run businesses. They are not irrevocably committed to building houses and they are not obliged to invest their resources in housing development, Unless there is a reasonable prospect of a profit on the capital at risk in a housing project, they may simply choose to invest in some other activity.
Questions 1 - 6
Choose ONE phrase A - G from the box to complete each of the following key points. Write the appropriate letters A - G in boxes 1 - 6 on your answer sheet. The information in the completed sentences should be an accurate summary of points made by the writer
You may use any phrase more than once.
Example Answer
There will be more green space available ... E
1. Residential density in cities will be increased ...
2. There are two types of ...
3. There are three types of ...
4. Developers are unlikely to build houses ...
5. Planners might try to dictate ...
6. Many people will not be happy ...
A people likely to want to live in high-density accommodation.
B living in higher density accommodation.
C if houses are built smaller.
D where old people should live.
E if residential density in cities is increased.
F where people do not want to live.
G attitude towards city living.
第七课时
READING PASSAGE 1
You are advised to spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1 - 15 which are based on Reading Passage 1.
The Birth Of The Microwave
A Chances are, you'll use a microwave oven at least once this week-probably (according to research) for heating up leftovers or defrosting something. Microwave ovens are so common today that it's easy to forget how rare they once were. As late as 1977, only 10% of U.S. homes had one. By 1995, 85% of households had at least one. Today, more people own microwaves than own dishwashers.
B Magnetrons, the tubes that produce microwaves, were invented by British scientists in 1940. They were used in radar systems during World War II, and were instrumental in detecting German planes during the Battle of Britain. These tubes—which are sort of like TV picture tubes—might still be strictly military hardware if Percy Spencer, an engineer at Raytheon (a U.S. defense contractor), hadn't stepped in front of one in 1946. He had a chocolate bar in his pocket; when he went to eat it a few minutes later, he found that the chocolate had almost completely melted. That didn't make sense. Spencer wasn't hot—how could the chocolate bar be? He suspected the magnetron was responsible, so he tried an experiment. He put a bag of popcorn kernels in the tube. Seconds later, they popped. The next day, Spencer brought eggs and an old tea-kettle to work. He cut a hole in the side of the kettle, put an egg in it, an laced it next to the magnetron. Just as a colleague went to see what was happening, the egg exploded.
C Spencer shared his discovery with his employers at Raytheon, and suggested manufacturing magnetron-powered ovens to sell to the public. Raytheon was interested. They had the capacity to produce 10,000 magnetron tubes per week, but with World War II over, military purchases had been cut down to almost nothing. What is the better way to recover lost sales than to put a radar set disguised as a microwave oven in every American home? Raytheon agreed to back the project. The company patented the first "high frequency dielectric heating apparatus" in 1953. Then they held a contest to find a name for their product. Some came up with "Radar Range", which was later combined into the single word—Radarange.
D Raytheon had a great product idea and a great name, but they didn't have an oven anyone could afford. The 1953 model was 51/2 feet tall, weighed more than 750 pounds, and cost $3000. Over the next 20 years, railroads, ocean liners and high-end restaurants were virtually the only Radarange customers. In 1955, a company called Tappan introduced the first microwave oven for average consumers; it was smaller than the Radarange, but still cost $1,295—more than some small homes. Then in 1964, a Japanese company perfected a miniaturized magnetron, and Raytheon soon after introduced a Radarange that used the new magnetron. It sold for $495. But that was still too expensive for the average American family. Finally, in the 1980s, technical improvements lowered the price and improve the quality enough to make microwave ovens both affordable and practical. By 1988, 10% of all new food products in the U.S were microwaveable.
E Here is the first thing you should know about "microwaves": Like visible light, radio waves and X-rays, they are waves of electromagnetic energy. What makes the four waves different from each other? Each has a different length (wavelength) and vibrates at a different speed (frequency). Microwaves get their name because their wavelength is much shorter than electromagnetic waves that carry TV and radio signals. The microwaves in a microwave oven have a wavelength o about four inches, and they vibrate 2.5 billion times per second—about the same natural frequency as water molecules. That's what at makes them so effective at heating food. A conventional oven heats the air in the oven, which then cooks the food. But microwaves cause water molecules in the food to vibrate at high speeds, creating heat. The heated water molecules are what cook the food. Glass, ceramics and plastics contain virtually no water molecules, which is why they don't heat up in the microwave. When the microwave oven is turned on, electricity passes through the magnetron, the tube that produces microwaves. The microwaves are then channeled down a metal tube (waveguide) and through a slow rotating metal fan (stirrer), which scatters them into the part of the oven where the food is placed. The walls of the oven are made of metal, which reflects microwaves the same way that a mirror reflects visible light. So when the microwaves hit the stirrer and are scattered into the food chamber, they bounce off the metal walls and penetrate the food from every direction. Some ovens have a rotating turntable that helps food cook more evenly.
F Do microwaves cook food from the inside out? Some people think so, but the answer seems to be no. Microwaves cook food from the outside in, like conventional ovens. But the microwave energy only penetrates about an inch into the food. The heat that's created by the water molecules then penetrates deeper into the food, cooking it all the way through. This secondary cooking process is known as "conduction".
G When sales of microwave ovens took off in the late 1980s, millions of cooks discovered the same thing: Microwaves just don't cook some foods as well as regular ovens do. The reason: Because microwaves cook by exciting the water molecules in food, the food inside the microwave oven rarely cooks at temperature higher than 212°F, the temperature at which water turns to steam. Conventional ovens, on the other hand, cook to temperatures as high as 550°F. High temperatures are needed to caramelize sugars and break down proteins, carbohydrates and other substances, and combine them into more complex flavors. So, microwave oven can't do any of this, and it can't bake, either. Some people feel this is the microwave's Achilles heel. "The name 'microwave oven' is a misnomer," says Cindy Ayers, an executive with Campbell Soup. "It doesn't do what an oven does." "It's a glorified popcorn popper," says Tom Vierhile, a researcher with Marketing Intelligence, a newsletter that tracks microwave sales. "When the microwave first came out, people thought they had stumbled on nirvana. It's not the appliance the food industry thought it would be. It's a major disappointment." Adds one cooking critic: "Microwave sales are still strong, but time will tell whether they have a future in the American kitchen."
Questions 1 - 6
Reading Passage 1 has seven paragraphs A - G. State which paragraph discusses each of the points below. Write the appropriate letters A - G in boxes 1 - 6 on your answer sheet.

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